說明

原文來自 [AFB] Making the Grade: An Overview of Accessible Testing ，本筆記紀錄閱讀心得與翻譯筆記。

 

心得

幾乎所有的標準化測驗(standardized tests)，都是以視覺正常者的角度去設計，測驗設計完後，若遇視障者要受測，才會去做媒介的調整(文字轉點字、文字轉語音等)，而在圖形概念部份，要能做到無障礙也是很大的挑戰，更遑論相關常模的建制，另外還有測驗調整後的信效度問題等，都需要有專責單位去做跨領域的規劃。

在美國，有 BANA 這個單位去制定相關的製作原則，有 APH 這個單位會跟測驗單位進行互動，在臺灣卻仍付之闕如，期待臺灣有一天能有視障者也能受測的標準化測驗。

 

原文與筆記

Making the Grade: An Overview of Accessible Testing

Author 作者
Janet Ingber

評分：無障礙測驗概述

Most students need to take . As a result of recent federal and state legislation, they are most frequently tested in English, math, and science. Sighted students usually fill in an oval or circle on the answer sheet for each multiple-choice question. If work leading up to the answer has to be shown as part of the test, such as in an essay or math problem, a student simply hands in the entire paper. Students who are blind require special test modifications to enable them to take tests but that do not influence their test scores.

大多數學生需要參加標準化測驗。由於最近的聯邦和州立法，他們最常接受英語、數學和科學的測試。有視力的學生通常做選擇題時，是在答案紙上塗滿橢圓形或圓形的格子。如果是非選題，例如在申論或數學題，一般學生只需手寫內容在紙上。視障學生需要對考試進行特殊修改，讓他們能夠參加考試，但不會影響他們的考試成績。

 

What Is a Standardized Test?

什麼是「標準化測驗」？

A standardized test is significantly different from a test that teachers create for their students. Standardized tests are given to a larger number of people. After the results are compiled, the test's norm is determined. The norm is the average standard of achievement on the test for a selected group. Some standardized tests have multiple parts. For example, the SAT has an English part, a mathematics part, and a writing part. A student receives a score in each domain (out of a possible score of 800), and his or her total score is the addition of all three numbers. If a student gets a score of 700 in English, 725 in math, and 650 in writing, his or her total score is 2075.

標準化測驗與個別化的測試有很大不同。標準化測驗是針對更多人施行。將施測結果整理成常模。常模是特定對象的平均測驗結果。一些標準化測試有多個部分。例如，SAT 有英語部分、數學部分和寫作部分。學生在每個領域都獲得一個分數（可能的分數為 800），他或她的總分是所有三個數字的加總。如果一個學生英語700分，數學725分，寫作650分，他或她的總分是2075。

In addition to the SAT, there are some other well-known standardized tests. These tests include the LSAT for applicants to law school and the Graduate Record Examination (GRE), which some graduate schools require for admission.

除了SAT，還有一些其他知名的標準化考試。這些測試包括法學院申請者的 LSAT 和一些研究生院要求入學的研究生入學考試 (GRE)。

 

Making Tests Accessible

讓測驗無障礙

Simply converting a written test into a large-print, braille, or audio format or a computer CD-ROM does not automatically mean that a test is accessible. The test must be converted into a format that a particular student who is blind or has low vision already uses. For example, since a young child who is blind will not have learned contracted braille, a reading test for the child needs to be in uncontracted braille. A student with low vision who has enough usable vision to read large print and has never taken a test using an audio format may be at a significant disadvantage if the test is provided only in an audio format, rather than in large print. If a test is computer generated, a student needs to have some previous experience with the kind of software the test uses. If the application is not self-voicing, it must work with a student's screen reader. Students with low vision may want to be able to change the screen contrast or font size. The test obviously must work with the computer's operating system.

簡單地將書寫測驗轉換為大字體、盲文或聲音格式或電腦光碟，並代表就會自動讓測驗無障礙。必須將測驗轉換為全盲或低視力的學生已經會使用的格式。例如，還不會縮寫點字(二級點字)的全盲孩童，閱讀測驗就要提供沒有縮寫的點字。如果低視力的學生有足夠的剩餘視力可以閱讀，而且從來沒有用過語音檔的測驗，那麼只提供給他語音檔反而會造成他顯著的劣勢。如果是使用電腦施測，則學生要有相關軟體的操作經驗。如果測驗程式不會自動播放語音，那就要能與學生的螢幕報讀體相容。低視力的學生可能希望能夠更改螢幕對比度或字體大小。該測驗顯然必須與電腦的作業系統相容。

Especially in more advanced tests, complex items may not be convertible to an accessible format. In such a case, a similar question needs to be developed that measures the same skill as the original item. Furthermore, if an item is complex and cannot be adapted, it may need to be omitted, and the scoring of the test will need to be modified, so a student does not lose points.

特別是在更進階的測驗，複雜的項目可能無法轉換為無障礙的格式。在這種情況下，需要開發一個類似的題目，來衡量與原始項目相同的技能。此外，如果一個項目很複雜而無法調整，則可能需要省略它，並且需要修改測驗的計分方式，讓學生不會因此損失分數。

 

Accessible Formats for ETS Tests

ETS 測驗的無障礙格式

Ruth Loew, the assistant director of the ETS Office of Disability Policy, said: "Our ETS-owned tests include the GRE, TOEFL [Test of English as a Foreign Language], the Praxis series (for the licensure of teachers), and many others, generally with smaller volumes of test takers. The ADA [Americans with Disabilities Act], with which ETS complies, provides guidance in that accessible formats, such as braille and large print, are either available or can be developed for most ETS tests. In addition, tests are commonly available in one or more audio formats, such as reader, audio CD, or audiocassette, if audio delivery does not significantly alter what the test measures. If a test contains figures, generally a figure supplement, either large print or raised line, is provided to accompany any audio format. For its computer-based tests, ETS currently offers (depending on the particular test) some or all of the following: screen magnification, selectable color schemes, extended time, and extra or extended breaks."

ETS 身障政策辦公室助理主任 Ruth Loew 說：“我們 ETS 擁有的考試包括 GRE、TOEFL [英語作為外語考試]、Praxis 系列（用於教師執照）和許多其他的測驗，通常只有少數的應試者。ETS 遵守的 ADA [美國身障者法案] 為大多數 ETS 考試提供可用或可以開發的無障礙格式（例如盲文和大字體）提供指引。此外，測試通常以一種或多種音頻格式提供，例如閱讀器、音頻 CD 或錄音帶，如果音頻傳輸不會顯著改變測試測量的內容。如果測試包含數字，通常是數字補充，或者大字體或凸起的線，提供伴隨任何音頻格式。對於基於計算機的測試，ETS 目前提供（取決於特定測試）以下部分或全部功能：屏幕放大、可選配色方案、延長時間以及額外或延長的休息時間。”

ETS also develops tests for many other organizations. As Loew noted, "ETS develops the SAT college admissions test and the Advanced Placement tests for the College Board. ETS also provides assessments for state departments of education and other organizations. These organizations set their own policies for accommodations."

ETS 還為許多其他組織開發測驗。正如 Loew 所說，“ETS 為大學理事會開發 SAT 大學入學考試和大學預修考試。ETS 還為州教育部門和其他組織提供評估。這些組織製定了自己的政策。”

 

Evidence-Centered Design

以證據為中心的設計

ETS is beginning to use "evidence-centered design" (ECD) to help ensure the validity of scores when a test is given in an accessible format. According to Hansen, "ECD of assessments is essentially a way of designing tests to ensure that they measure what they are intended to measure. It begins with a careful analysis of the purpose of the assessment and with specification of the claims that one wishes to be able to make, on the basis of test results, about what a student knows and can do. It then specifies the performances that will provide evidence for these claims. ECD is beginning to be used to help test developers consider individuals with disabilities in defining claims and determining what constitutes appropriate evidence for or against the claims. For example, if one wishes to claim that strong performance on a test indicates that a student can decode words from characters, one should probably not allow the test to be read aloud, since doing so would make it possible to perform well on the test without possessing good decoding skills. On the other hand, if decoding is not an essential part of what the test is intended to measure, then the use of the read-aloud (or audio) accommodation may be appropriate. ECD can thus help ensure accessibility without undermining the validity or quality of the test results."

ETS 開始使用“以證據為中心的設計”(ECD) 來幫助確保使用無障礙測驗時分數的有效性。根據 Hansen 的說法，“評量的 ECD 基本上是一種設計測試的方式，用來確保它們測量出要測量的內容。它始於對評量目的的仔細分析，並能夠根據測試結果確定學生知道什麼和可以做什麼。然後對於這些結果提供證據的表現。ECD 開始被用來幫助測驗開發人員，找出適當的證據證明是否身心障礙者。例如，如果有人希望得到學生從字符中解碼單詞的良好表現，那就不該用大聲朗讀的方式，因為這樣可能會讓沒有良好解碼能力的人表現良好。另一方面，如果解碼不是測驗要測量的重要部分，那麼使用大聲朗讀（或音頻）調整可能是合適的。因此，ECD 在不破壞測驗結果的信效度下可以確認其無障礙性。”

 

Another Major Player

另一個主要成員

The American Printing House for the Blind (APH) has played a major role in making standardized tests accessible to students who are blind or have low vision. In addition to adapting tests, staff members of the APH Accessible Tests Department offer workshops for test developers, test publishers, department of education personnel, school psychologists, parents, and teachers.

APH 在為盲人或低視力的學生提供標準化測試方面發揮了重要作用。除了調整測試之外，APH 無障礙測試部門的工作人員還為測試開發人員、測試發布者、教育部門人員、學校心理師、家長和教師提供研討會。

Barbara Henderson, the leader of the Tests and Assessments Project, coordinates all the projects at APH that involve adapting commercially available tests for persons who are visually impaired. She explained, "A major responsibility is to survey the field to determine which tests are used most widely across the United States and which accessible formats are needed. I have a lot of contact with test publishers and educators in the process of product development."

測驗和評估項目的負責人 Barbara Henderson 負責協調 APH 的所有項目，這些項目包含為視障人士調整商用測驗。她解釋說：“一項主要職責是調查該領域，以確定哪些測試在美國使用最廣泛，以及需要哪些無障礙格式。在產品開發過程中，我與測試出版商和教育工作者有很多聯繫。”

Henderson continued, "The higher-level tests are a challenge to adapt for braille readers because of the many technical illustrations and math symbols and diagrams. Simply providing a tactile graphic to replace a visual element does not guarantee that the item will be accessible. Designing readable tactile graphics is an art and is labor intensive. Similarly, an audio or 'read-aloud' version of complex items in science, technology, and math should be read by an experienced narrator and scripted by a content expert. Retrofitting for accessibility can be a time-consuming and expensive process."

Henderson 繼續說道，“更高階的測驗對於全盲閱讀者的試題調整更具挑戰，因為有許多技術插圖和數學符號和圖表。簡單地提供一個觸覺圖形來代替視覺元素並不能保證該項目變成無障礙。設計可讀的觸覺圖形是一門藝術，而且是勞動密集型的。同樣，科學、技術和數學中復雜項目的語音頻或“朗讀”版本應該由經驗豐富的敘述者閱讀，並由內容專家編寫腳本。無障礙的改造是一個耗時且昂貴的過程。”

Some test publishers and some state departments of education (DOEs) have resisted making standardized tests accessible. Henderson attributed this resistance mainly to the lack of knowledge, not just to budgetary constraints. She said, "Once assessment and accountability personnel from state DOEs and their test-publisher partners participate in our workshops, we see a change. We equip people with the basic tools and information they need to go back and get the job done. They pass this information along. It's about a three-year cycle before things get better as we work with individual states. We can see the results because the tests contain fewer items that are not accessible to visually impaired students. Once we begin working closely with test publishers, they are eager to assist us in any way they can."

一些測驗出版商和一些州教育部門 (DOE) 拒絕讓標準化測試無障礙。Henderson 將這種阻力主要歸因於缺乏知識，而不僅僅是預算限制。她說：“一旦州教育部門及其測驗出版商參加了我們的研討會，我們就會看到變化。我們為參與者提供了回去後能完成工作所需的基本工具和資訊。他們傳遞這些信息。在我們與各個州合作時，情況會好轉之前大約需要三年的周期。我們可以看到結果，因為測驗越來越少視障學生無法施做的部份。一旦我們開始與測驗出版商密切合作，他們願意儘可能的幫助我們。”

Henderson continued, "At present, APH is not involved directly in producing computerized tests. However, we are actively providing information and resources to interested parties about how to design accessible computer-based assessments. For instance, we have worked since 2000 with the Kentucky Department of Education's Exceptional Children's Services as participants in its Universal Design for Learning Expert Workgroup. This work led to the development of Kentucky's Accessible Online Testing Program (KATS).

Henderson 繼續說：“目前，APH 不直接參與電腦化測驗的製作。但是，我們正在積極向感興趣的各方提供有關如何設計無障礙電腦化的評估資訊和資源。例如，自 2000 年以來，我們一直與肯塔基州合作教育部卓越兒童服務部作為其通用學習設計專家工作組的參與者。這項工作促成了肯塔基州線上無障礙測試計劃 (KATS) 的發展。

"Finally, during our workshops on Making Tests Accessible to Students with Visual Impairments, we include a live demonstration of assistive technology and other accommodations that are needed for computer-based testing [CBT]. Our goal is to illustrate that contrary to popular belief, simply putting a test on computer does not make it accessible."

“最後，在我們視障生無障礙測驗的研討會期間，我們包括現場演示輔助技術和電腦化的測試所需的便利設施 [CBT]。我們的目標是說明與大家的想法不同，只是把測驗放上電腦並不會讓它無障礙。”

"I don't consider a test to be truly accessible unless the test taker can take the test independently or with a modicum of independence," Henderson said. "To ensure that a computer-based test is accessible for persons who are visually impaired, I suggest that it be designed for the medium from the ground up. Retrofitting paper-and-pencil tests for computer presentation is often unsuccessful. Test designers should write specific CBT items, the presentation of which will be enhanced or, at least, supported by the computer format. It is possible to do so if test developers follow general accessibility features, including making their software amenable to special technology. Simplicity is key: Make the program self-voicing, for example. Other important considerations are adequate training for the test administrators as well as for the test takers. No new or special circumstances should be introduced to anyone on the day of the test!"

“除非應試者可以獨立或部份獨立完成，否則我不認為考試是真正無障礙的。” Henderson 說“為了確保視障者可以使用電腦化測驗，我建議在操作媒介上從頭開始設計。將紙筆測驗直接改裝成電腦測驗通常是不成功的。測驗設計者應該編寫特定的 CBT 項目，讓它的表現能夠增強，或至少讓電腦格式能支援。如果測驗開發人員遵循一般無障礙規範，包括使他們的軟體適用於特殊技術是有可能。簡單化是關鍵：例如讓程式具有語音。其他重要的考慮因素是對監考人員和考生的充分培訓。考試當天不用向任何人說明新的或特殊情況！”

 

Examples of Adapted Tests

測驗調整的範例

APH has been involved in adapting or in helping to adapt many standardized tests. Here are some descriptions of how various tests were adapted.

APH 已參與調整或幫助調整許多標準化測驗。以下是有關如何調整各種測驗的一些描述。

 

Stanford Achievement Test

Stanford 成就測驗

The Stanford Achievement Test, now in its 10th edition, is administered to many school-age children in the United States. The test covers such domains as vocabulary, reading comprehension, and math. APH made the following adaptations to make the test accessible to students who are visually impaired:

1. Large-print editions conform to APH standards and are now in print that is 18 point or larger. The text was reformatted for optimal readability, not just for enlargement.

2. Braille editions were developed according to the guidelines of the Braille Authority of North America and follow APH standards for the design of tactile graphics.

Stanford 成就測驗現已進入第 10 版，適用於美國的許多學齡兒童。該測驗涵蓋詞彙、閱讀理解和數學等領域。APH 進行了以下調整，以使視力受損的學生可以進行測試：

1. 大字體版本符合 APH 標準，印刷的字體為 18 號字或更大。文本被重新排版以獲得最佳可讀性，而不是只有放大。
2. 點字版本是根據北美點字管理局(BANA)的指導方針開發的，並遵循 APH 觸覺圖形設計標準。

Woodcock-Johnson III: Tests of Achievement

Woodcock-Johnson III 成就測驗

This test consists of a variety of subtests and is generally used from kindergarten through graduate school. It covers such areas as reading comprehension, aural expression, math calculation, and math reasoning. Accessible versions of the test are currently under development, with Henderson as the project leader. Braille and large-print editions will be available, and the large print will be in full color.

該測驗由各種子測驗組成，通常從幼兒園到研究生院使用。它涵蓋了閱讀理解、聽覺表達、數學計算和數學推理等領域。該測試的無障礙版本目前正在開發中，Henderson 是項目負責人。將提供點字和大字體版本，大字體將是全彩色的。

 

Administering Standardized Tests

管理標準化測驗

Once an adapted test is created, it needs to be administered to students. Administration involves much more than just handing a test to a student. The American Foundation for the Blind (AFB) has a checklist for test coordinators and staff who will be with students during a test (see For More Information at the end of this article).

一旦建立了調整後的測驗，就需要對學生進行管理。管理涉及的不僅僅是把測驗給學生測試。美國盲人基金會 (AFB) 有一份監考人員和將在考試期間陪伴學生的工作人員的工作清​​單（請參閱本文末尾的更多信息）。

Guidelines for Test Coordinators

1. Make sure that the adapted tests arrive when the regular standardized tests arrive.

2. Ensure that the test is in the correct format. If a braille version of a test is ordered, a braille test should be delivered.

3. Ensure that all special materials, such as manipulatives, assistive technology, and test- administration manuals are present and in good working order.

4. Arrange for the training of proctors, readers, and transcribers. Make sure that these people are familiar with the test's content areas and all special equipment that will be used.

測驗工作人員守則

1. 確認調整後的試卷與一般試卷同時抵達。
2. 確認測驗格式正確，如果有點字版本的測驗，也要確認點字版本有送達。
3. 確保所有特殊器材（例如操作工具、輔助技術和考試管理手冊）都在場並處於良好的工作狀態。
4. 安排對監考人員、讀者和代謄人員的培訓。確保這些人熟悉測試的工作內容以及會用到的所有特殊設備。

Guidelines for Test Administrators or Proctors

1. Become familiar with the adapted test as well as the regular standardized test.

2. Make sure that all assistive technology and other supplies are available on the day of the test. If a student usually uses an abacus for math, then one needs to be present for the test.

3. Orient the student to the testing area and materials.

4. Make sure the test answers are sent to the correct place for scoring.

測驗管理員或監考人員指南

1. 熟悉調整後測驗以及常規標準化測試。
2. 確保所有輔具和其他用品在考試當天可用。如果學生通常使用算盤進行數學運算，則在測驗時要有。
3. 引導學生了解測驗環境和器材。
4. 確認將測驗答案發送到正確的位置進行評分。

Responsibilities of Readers and Transcribers

1. Readers must be familiar with special symbols and terminology and be able to pronounce common words.

2. Transcribers must write the student's answers exactly, including grammar and punctuation.

3. A second person should proofread the answers to ensure they were recorded correctly.

4. Braille transcribers must know literary braille and the Nemeth Code for braille math and science tests.

報讀者和代謄員的責任

1. 報讀者必須熟悉特殊符號和術語，並能唸出常用詞。
2. 代謄員必須準確地寫出學生的答案，包括語法和標點符號。
3. 第二個人應該校對答案，以確保它們被正確記錄。
4. 點字代謄員必須了解文學點字、數學和科學測驗的 Nemeth 點字。

 

Toward the Future

展望未來

Hansen said, "We expect that future generations of computer-based testing will incorporate additional accessibility features, such as keyboard-only operability and the use of synthesized speech. Such features could enhance the usability of computer-based tests for individuals who are blind or have low vision." Henderson said, "I have seen attitudes change over the past few years, not just because of recent legislation. Test publishers are placing more and more special education teachers on staff, so that an awareness of the needs of individuals with disabilities comes from within the companies now. Organizations like ours can help by providing specialized knowledge about how to accommodate individual disability groups. A few test publishers are finally being convinced to include visually impaired persons in their norming and standardization groups and to design their tests for accessibility from the ground up. This is tough to get across because huge item banks have already been developed. Finally, designing for the test medium will become especially important as more and more computer-based tests are developed. I am excited by the progress we've made, but we still have a long way to go."

Hansen 說：“我們預計未來幾代電腦化的測驗將包含額外的輔助功能，例如只用鍵盤就可以操作和使用語音合成。這些功能可以提高電腦化測驗對全盲或低力者的可用性。” Hansen 說：“我看到過去幾年態度發生了變化，這不僅僅是因為最近的立法。測驗出版商正在安排越來越多的特殊教育教師加入工作人員，因此公司內部有意識到身心障礙需求。像我們這樣的組織可以通過提供有關如何調整個別障礙群體的專業知識來提供幫助。一些測試出版商最終被說服將視障人士納入他們的規範和標準化小組，並從頭開始設計他們的無障礙測驗。這很難被克服，因為大量的資料庫已經被建立。最後，隨著越來越多的電腦化測驗被開發出來，測驗媒介的設計將變得更為重要。我對我們取得的進展感到興奮，但我們還有很長的路要走。”